Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' title='Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' />Chapter 4 GARDGuide. From GARDGuide. 4. Defining the Problem Characterization. Introduction. 4. 2 Site Characterization Approach. Mine Life Cycle Phases. Sources of Acid Rock Drainage. Conceptual Site Model Development. An Economic History of Australia by Edward Shann. PREFACE. THE following account of Australian economic development attempts, to keep in the forefront the private. Type or paste a DOI name into the text box. Click Go. Your browser will take you to a Web page URL associated with that DOI name. Send questions or comments to doi. Express Helpline Get answer of your question fast from real experts. Duties and functions. Truck drivers provide an essential service to industrialized societies by transporting finished goods and raw materials over land, typically to. Research Funding. ACARP seeks research proposals that address key industry problems on an annual basis. The announcement seeking research proposals will be. Components of Site Characterization. Geo environmental Models. Source Material Geochemical Characterization. Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' title='Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' />Watershed Characterization. The Hydrologic Cycle. Water Balance. 4. Assimilative Capacity of the Receiving Environment. Biological Receptors. Summary. 4. 5 References. List of Tables. List of Figures. Introduction. The generation, release, mobility, and attenuation of acid rock drainage ARD is a complex process governed by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological factors see Chapter 2. Neutral mine drainage NMD and saline drainage SD are governed by similar factors but may or may not involve the oxidation of sulphides. Whether ARD, NMD, or SD enters the environment depends largely on the characteristics of the sources and pathways. Characterization of these features is therefore key to the prediction, prevention, and management of drainage impacted by the products of sulphide oxidation at mine sites. In this chapter, the term ARD refers to drainage types that are affected by the products of sulphide oxidation, including acid, neutral and saline drainage. Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' title='Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' />Environmental characterization programs are designed to collect sufficient data to answer the following questions. Is ARD likely to occur and what are the potential sources What type of chemistry is expected When is likely to start and how much will be generatedWhat are the significant pathways that transport contaminants to the receiving environment and can those contaminants be attenuated along those pathways What are the anticipated environmental impacts What can be done to prevent or mitigatemanage ARD Figure 4 1 shows how the information presented in this chapter is integrated with other chapters of the GARD Guide in the development and execution of a site characterization program to address these questions. To address these key questions, expertise from numerous disciplines is required, including geology, mineralogy, hydrology, hydrogeology, geochemistry, biology, meteorology, and engineering Figure 4 2. Fundamentally, the geologic and mineralogic characteristics of the ore body and host rock or the coal seam and overburden define the type of drainage generated as a result of mining. Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' title='Cost Estimation Handbook Australian Mining Contractors' />The site climatic and hydrologichydrogeologic characteristics define whether and how constituents present in mine drainage are transported through the receiving environment to receptors. Because the geologic and mineralogic characteristics of mineral deposits exert important and predictable controls on the environmental signature of mineralized areas both before mining and during mining Plumlee, 1. ARD is typically made based on review of geologic data collected during exploration. Baseline environmental characterization of elemental concentrations in various media i. ARD potential and documents potentially naturally elevated concentrations in the surrounding environment. The initial assessment of ARD potential is refined during mine development and operation as detailed characterization data of the waste and ore materials are obtained. During mine development, the magnitude and location of sources of mine and process discharges to the environment are identified. The boundaries of the receiving watersheds are delineated based on topography, defining the site characterization boundary. Meteorologic, hydrological, and hydrogeological investigations are conducted to characterize the amount and direction of water movement within the watershed i. Potential biological receptors within the watershed boundary are identified. Over the mine life, the focus of the watershed characterization program evolves from establishment of baseline conditions, to prediction of drainage release and transport, to monitoring of the environmental conditions and potential impacts. This chapter presents the approach and methods typically applied to characterize the release, transport, and fate of constituents present in ARD i. Despite inherent differences at mine sites e. Top of this page. Site Characterization Approach. Table 4 1 describes the phases of mine development from exploration through to post closure. During the early stages of mine development, site specific information may be limited and therefore a high level of uncertainty is present in site characterization. This uncertainty is reduced as information is obtained during exploration, planning, feasibility and design, and is further reduced during operation and decommissioning. Table 4 2 and Table 4 3 present the chronology of a characterization program and identify the data collection activities typically executed during each mine phase. The bulk of the characterization effort occurs before mining during the mine planning, assessment, and design phase referred to as the development phase throughout this chapter. Identification of potential environmental impacts during this phase and incorporation of appropriate prevention and mitigation measures is intended to minimize environmental impacts and serves as a foundation for the environmental and social impact assessment. During the commissioningconstruction and operation phases, a transition from site characterization to monitoring of waste materials and geochemical processes occurs, which continues throughout the decommissioning and post closure phases. Urs Saturation Plug In'>Urs Saturation Plug In. Ongoing monitoring refines the knowledge of the site, allowing adjustments for new technologies that may evolve during the mine life and whose incorporation will reduce closure costs and better manage associated risks. Top of this page. Mine Life Cycle Phases. Exploration Phase. The primary objective of exploration is to locate a potentially economic ore body or energy resource. The techniques employed in mineral exploration include literature review, geologic mapping, geochemical sampling rock, soil, and water sampling, geophysical testing, remote sensing surveys surface, subsurface, airborne, and satellite, aerial photography, and drilling SME, 2. Exploration data are compiled to characterize the ore deposit, including the deposits size, grade, mineralization style, and the alteration assemblages present. The exploration geologist maps the lateral and vertical distribution of material types across the deposit. Material types may include distinct lithologies or rock units, ore units, alteration assemblages, coal seam overburden and interburden or soil types that have relatively homogeneous characteristics of importance e. Three dimensional digital representations of material types, called block models, are generated from borehole data to develop the economic ore estimation models see Chapter 5. If sufficient data are available, geologic block models with an ore evaluation focus can be adapted using ARD potential indicator parameters e. ABA results to provide an early indication of the quantities of potentially acid generating and non acid generating wastes and the overall ARD potential of the deposit. Determination of parameters such as sulphur and carbon during exploration, therefore, provides significant value at later stages of the project cycle by augmenting the ABA database from the geochemical characterization program. Bengal famine of 1. Wikipedia. The Bengal famine of 1. Bengali Pacra manwantara was a major famine in the Bengal provinceAB in British India during World War II. An estimated 2. 1 millionC people died in the famine, the deaths occurring first from starvation and then from diseases, which included cholera, malaria, smallpox, dysentery, and kala azar. Other factors, such as malnutrition, population displacement, unsanitary conditions, and lack of health care, further increased disease fatalities. Millions were impoverished as the crisis overwhelmed large segments of the economy and social fabric, accelerating a trend toward economic inequality. Bengals economy was predominantly agrarian. For at least a decade before the crisis, between half and three quarters of those dependent on agriculture were already at near subsistence level. Underlying causes of the famine included inefficient agricultural practices, dense population, and de peasantisation through debt bondage and land grabbing. Proximate causes comprise localised natural disasters a cyclone, storm surges and flooding, and rice crop disease and at least five consequences of war initial, general war time inflation of both demand pull and monetary origin loss of rice imports due to the Japanese occupation of Burma modern Myanmar near total disruption of Bengals market supplies and transport systems by the preemptive, defensive scorched earth tactics of the Raj the denial policies for rice and boats and later, massive inflation brought on by repeated policy failures, war profiteering, speculation, and perhaps hoarding. Finally, the government prioritised military and defense needs over those of the rural poor, allocating medical care and food immensely in the favour of the military, labourers in military industries, and civil servants. All of these factors were further compounded by restricted access to grain domestic sources were constrained by emergency inter provincial trade barriers, while access to international sources was largely denied by the War Cabinet of Great Britain. The relative impact of each of these contributing factors to the death toll and economic devastation is still a matter of controversy. Different analyses frame the famine against natural, economic, or political causes. The government was slow to supply humanitarian aid, at first using propaganda to discourage hoarding. It attempted to drive rice paddy prices down through price controls and a series of procurement schemes. Price controls merely created a thriving black market and encouraged cautious sellers to withhold their stocks moreover, prices soared when the controls were abandoned. Relief efforts in the form of gruel kitchens, agricultural loans and test works were both insufficient and ineffective through the worst months of the food crisis phase. Despite having a long established and detailed Famine Code that would have triggered a sizable increase in aid, the provincial government never formally declared a state of famine. Relief efforts increased significantly when the military took control of crisis relief in October 1. December. Deaths from starvation began to decline, but very substantially more than half of the famine related fatalities were caused by disease in 1. BackgroundeditFrom the late nineteenth century through the Great Depression, social and economic forces exerted a harmful impact on the structure of Bengals income distribution and the ability of its agricultural sector to sustain the populace. These processes included a rapidly growing population, increasing household debt, stagnant agricultural productivity, increased social stratification, and alienation of the peasant class from their landholdings. The interaction of these left clearly defined social and economic groups mired in poverty and indebtedness, unable to cope with economic shocks or maintain their access to food beyond the near term. In 1. 94. 2 and 1. Second World War, the shocks Bengalis faced were numerous, complex and sometimes sudden. Millions were vulnerable to starvation. The Government of Indias Famine Commission Report 1. Bengal as a land of rice growers and rice eaters. Rice dominated the agricultural output of the province, accounting for nearly 8. Download Ipadian 2 For Pc. D Overall, Bengal produced one third of Indias rice. Rice accounted for between 7. Fish was the second major food source, supplemented by small amounts of wheat. E The consumption of other foods was typically relatively small. There are three seasonal rice crops in Bengal. By far the most important is the winter aman crop, sown in May and June, and harvested in November and December. It comprises more than 7. The second most important crop is the aus or autumn crop, sown around April and harvested in August and September, which accounts for more than 2. Finally, there is a small amount of boro or spring crop, planted in November and harvested in February and March. Crucially, the debated shortfall in rice production in 1. Population and agricultural productivityeditOne reason for the high excess mortality of 1. Bengal, and a longstanding history of stagnant agricultural productivity in India. Bengal was very densely populated. F Moreover, according to census figures, its population had been increasing at an accelerating rate in ten year periods, the rate of growth started at 2. Bengals population rose by 4. Indias population as a whole increased by 3. GAside from a great concentration of war factories in industrialised areas in Greater Calcutta,H and some mining in the extensive Raniganj Coalfield of the western districts, Bengals economy was almost solely agrarian. In an agricultural society, arable land is the most important resource, and subsistence and cash crops are the most important commodities. However, agricultural productivity in Bengal was amongst the lowest in the world. Agricultural production had traditionally been characterised by dependence on monsoon rainfall instead of controlled and reliable irrigation,I archaic methods and crude tillage, low intensity of inputs, subsistence farming, proneness to famines, and the low productivity of land. Rice yield per acre had been stable or falling for perhaps centuries, and certainly since at least the beginning of the twentieth century. JPrior to about 1. Bengals growing population could be met in part by bringing undeveloped lands under the plough. Probably around the turn of the twentieth century, and certainly no later than the early 1. Bengal began to experience an acute shortage of landK and a chronic and growing shortage of rice. Bengals agricultural inability to keep pace with rapid population growth changed it from a net exporter to a net importer of foodgrains. Although imports constituted a small part of the total production, this may have been accompanied by a decrease in average consumption levels it was estimated in 1. Bengali diet was the least nutritious in the world Bengals rice output in normal years was barely enough for bare bones subsistence. An output of 9 million tons translates into one pound per day or less than 2,0. Even allowing for imports from neighboring provinces and Burma and trade accounted for only a small fraction of supplies in 1. Taken together, these conditions left a large proportion of the population continually on the brink of malnutrition or even starvation.